In my view, a common cultural ground is a very important reference point for understanding the art of a historical period and for explaining how a long-lasting cultural symbiosis could exist for many centuries. When we study art from the late Byzantine and early Ottoman periods, we should not look at cultures as completely separate. Instead, we should see them as connected and interacting. Scholars such as D. A. Korobeinikov have already discussed this idea in detail, especially in his study about Bithynia between 1290 and 1450. His work questions the simple division of history into “Turks versus Greeks.” This traditional way of thinking does not fully explain the complex cultural and social realities of the time The Activity of Cretan Painters in Different Regions.
Ethnic Diversity in Anatolia
Already in the thirteenth century, Central Anatolia had a very complex ethnic structure. Different ethnic and religious groups lived together and interacted in daily life. Greeks, Turks, Armenians, Jews, and many other communities shared the same geographic space. Because of this diversity, it is difficult to describe the region using strict ethnic categories. Instead of separation, there was cultural exchange and mutual influence. This situation also affected artistic production, including religious images and icons.
Migration played a major role in shaping this diversity. Not only Greeks but also Jewish populations moved from the Balkans to different parts of Europe and from eastern to western Anatolia. At the same time, other groups such as Vlachs, Serbians, and Albanians were also mobile and active in trade and social life. This movement of people helped spread artistic ideas, styles, and tastes across regions. As a result, the icons and religious artworks produced in Anatolia reflected a mixture of artistic traditions rather than a single cultural identity Private Tour Ephesus.
Social and Economic Changes in the Eighteenth Century
The foundation of new commercial companies by craftsmen and farmers from regions like Chalkidiki, Epirus, the Peloponnese, and the Greek Islands encouraged the growth of a middle class. During the eighteenth century, socio-economic conditions began to change significantly. The emergence of a civil society, especially a strong merchant class, created new customers who demanded different types of religious and decorative objects. This new social group had its own tastes and preferences, which influenced artistic styles.
As the middle class became more involved in the economic and administrative systems, their cultural influence also increased. They were no longer only consumers of traditional religious art but also supporters of new artistic forms. Their financial power allowed them to commission artworks, including icons, that reflected their social identity and changing aesthetic preferences.
Trade Networks and the Nineteenth Century Ottoman Economy
In the second half of the nineteenth century, trade within the Ottoman Empire became more intensive and profitable. Commercial networks expanded and connected the empire with the Aegean islands, Mediterranean regions, and Europe. These connections strengthened economic relations and increased cultural interaction. Ottoman Greek merchants, in particular, benefited greatly from these improved links with the global economy. Over time, they developed into a group that can be described as a petit bourgeoisie, with growing economic and social influence.
Social Stratification within Greek-Orthodox Society
Alongside the emerging middle class, another important group existed within Greek-Orthodox society: the Phanariots. They lived mainly in Constantinople and believed themselves to be descendants of Byzantine ruling families. The Phanariots represented the aristocratic class of the Greek-Orthodox community within a diverse and multicultural society. Their education, political roles, and economic power allowed them to maintain a strong cultural presence. Together with merchants and other social groups, they contributed to the rich and complex cultural environment that shaped artistic production, including the post-Byzantine tradition of religious imagery.
